NOTES
1. Nine Principles of Preparedness are available in John M. Collins, Military Preparedness: Principles Compared with U.S. Practices, Report No. 94-48 S (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, January 21, 1994), 41-49.
2. Charles M. Daugherty, City Under the Ice: The Story of Camp Century (New York: Macmillan, 1963); Trevor Hatherton, ed., Antarctica (New York: Praeger, 1965), references to Little America 1, 2, 3, and 4: 35-39, 68-69, 91, 193, 205-206, 211-216, 233-235, 248-249, 280, 443, 469, 474-478, 484-486, 501.
3. For a few historical examples, see A. W. Abbott, "Lapland 1918-19, The British Army's Farthest North," Army Quarterly 84 (1962): 236-243; Charles S. Stevenson, "The 40-Below-Zero Campaign" [U.S. forces in European Russia and Eastern Siberia, 1918-1920], Army 19, no. 2 (February 1969): 49-50; Charles O. Lerche, Jr., "Norway (1940-1945)," in Challenge and Response in Internal Conflict, vol. 2, The Experience in Europe and the Middle East, eds. D. M. Condit, Bert H. Cooper, Jr., et al. (Washington, DC: Center for Research in Social Systems, American University, March), 225-249; Alex Bruckner, "Attack in the Tundra," Military Review 36, no. 1 (April 1956): 98-109.
4. Robert W. Service, "The Cremation of Sam McGee," in The Spell of the Yukon (New York: Dodd Mead and Co. 1907), 66.
5. Personal survival problems are described in The Arctic Basin, coordinated by John E. Slater, (Centerville, MD: Tidewater Publishing for The Arctic Institute of America, 1963), 278-289; FM 31-70: Basic Cold Weather Manual (Washington, DC: Dept. of the Army, April 1968, 43-50; Robert D. Cheney, "Cold Weather Medicine: An Ounce of Prevention," Marine Corps Gazette, February 1981, 43, 44-45, 47.
6. FM 31-70: Basic Cold Weather Manual, chap. 2 and appendix E; Carl W. Riester, "Cold Weather Operations," Special Warfare, January 1994, 9-10.
7. Rowan Scarborough, "High-Tech Clothing Gives GIs Weather Protection," Washington Times, December 28, 1995, 1.
8. FM 31-70: Basic Cold Weather Manual, 16-17, 22-27, 29-35.
9. Ibid., 36-39, 42-43; Jonathan D. Thompson, "Infantry Company Operations in an Extremely Cold Environment," Infantry (September-October 1995): 31-32; "Cold Weather Operations," part 2, Infantry (November-December 1980): 29.
10. FM 9-209/Technical Order 36-1-40: Operation and Maintenance of Equipment in Cold Weather (00 to -600) (Washington, DC: Dept. of the Army and Dept. of the Air Force, August 10, 1989, 1-2 through 1-5, 1-7 through 1-9, 5-1 and 5-2, 6-1 through 6-4; FM 31-70: Basic Cold Weather Manual, 177; "Cold Weather Operations," part 3, Infantry (January-February 1981): 23-24.
11. Guy Murchie, Song of the Sky (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1954), 238.
12. FM 31-70: Basic Cold Weather Manual, chapter 4, plus 105-115 and appendix C; Thompson, "Infantry Company Operations in an Extremely Cold Environment," 29-31.
13. FM 31-70: Basic Cold Weather Manual, 115-121; Francis King, "Cold Weather Warfare: What Will Happen?," Military Review 57, no. 11 (November 1977): 86, 92; "Cold Weather Operations," part 3, Infantry, 24, 25.
14. William P. Baxter, "Soviet Norms for Driving Tanks," Military Review 60, no. 9 (September 1980): 5-8; Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941-1945 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1964), 321-335.
15. Guy Murchie, Song of the Sky, 233-234, 238-239; Francis King, "Cold Weather Warfare: What Would Happen?," 87, 90-91; Lewis E. Link, "Cold Regions Impacts on Army Operations," Readings in Military Geography, vol. 1, Tactical (West Point, NY: Dept. of Geography, U.S. Military Academy, 1990), 80,82.
16. Rudolph M. Tamez, who was Operations Officer for the composite battalion of the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment that participated in Operation Arctic Night.
17. John C. Scharfen, "Cold Weather Training: the Absolute Necessity." Marine Corps Gazette, February 1981, 66, 67, 68, 69; Francis King, "Cold Weather Warfare: What Would Happen?" 87, 90; The Arctic Basin, 237-249, 263-277.
18. Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. 12, 1962, 41-42.
19. U.S. Navy Cold Weather Handbook for Surface Ships (Washington, DC: Chief of Naval Operations, Surface Ship Survivability Office (OP O3C2), May 1988), 2-2, 2-3, 2-12, 3-1, 3-8 and 3-9, chap. 5, appendices B, D, F.
22. Brian Garfield, The Thousand-Mile War: World War II in Alaska and the Aleutians (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1969), 119-120.
23. Thomas B. Curtain, Norbert Untersteiner, and Thomas Callahan, "Arctic Oceanography", Oceanus (Winter 1990/91): 58-66; U.S. Cold Weather Handbook for Surface Ships, 4-4 through 4-10, 6-5 and 6-6.
24. Barrie Pitt, The Battle of the Atlantic (Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1977), 157-159, and John R. Elting, Battles for Scandinavia (Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1981), 146-148.
25. John R. Hale, Age of Exploration (New York: Time Inc., 1966), 101-102, 118-126; William D. Smith, Northwest Passage (New York: American Heritage Press); Constantine Krypton, The Northern Sea Route and The Economy of the Soviet Union (New York: Praeger, 1956).
26. William R. Anderson with Clay Blair, Jr., Nautilus 90 North (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1959), 212-239.
27. Waldo K. Lyon, "Submarine Combat in the Ice," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 118, no. 2 (February 1992): 33-40; U.S. Cold Weather Handbook for Surface Ships, 1-6.
28. Ibid., 38-39; H. A. Jackson et al., "Bottom Bounce Array Sonar Submarines," American Society of Naval Engineers Journal (September 1989): 59.
29. Lorus J. and Margery Milne, The Mountains, Time-Life Nature Library, rev. ed. (New York: Time Inc., 1967); FM 90-6: Mountain Operations (Washington, DC: Dept. of the Army, June 30, 1980, I-ii, 1-1 through 1-3, and appendix G
30. John Heins, "Cuba (1953-1959)," in Challenge and Response in International Conflict, vol. 3, The Experience in Africa and Latin America, eds. D. M. Condit, Bert H. Cooper, Jr., et al. (Washington, DC: Center for Research in Social Studies, American University, April 1968), 435-461.
31. Field-Marshal Viscount Slim, Defeat into Victory (New York: David McKay, 1961), 6.
32. FM 90-6: Mountain Operations, 1-14 and 1-15, 3-2, 3-3, D-1, D-3; Morgan B. Heasley, "Mountain Operations in Winter," Military Review 32, no. 6 (June 1952): 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16.
33. FM 90-6: Mountain Operations, 1-6 through 1-8.
34. Julie Kim and Steven Woehrel, Bosnia--Former Yugoslavia and U. S. Policy, Issue Brief 91089 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, July 23, 1996), updated periodically.
35. FM 90-6: Mountain Operations, 4-1, 5-2, 5-3; Heasley, "Mountain Operations in Winter," 14, 15.
36. Robert Wallace, The Italian Campaign (New York: Time-Life Books, 1978), 108-109, 184-185. For military mountaineering equipment and techniques, see FM 90-6: Mountain Operations, B-4, B-5, B-7, and appendix C.
37. FM 90-6: Mountain Operations, chapter 2. Challenge and Response in International Conflict addresses 20th-century mountain operations by irregular forces: vol. 1, The Experience in Asia, February 1968, Burma (1942-1945), Indonesia (1946-1948), Jammu and Kashmir (1947-1949), Korea (1948-1954), Tibet (1951-1960); vol. 2, The Experience in Europe and the Middle East, March 1967,Greece (1942-1949), Italy (1943-1945), Norway (1940-1945), Yugoslavia (1941-1944); vol. 3, The Experience in Africa and Latin America, April 1968, Ethiopia (1937-1941), Nicaragua (1927-1933), Colombia (1948-158); Supplement, September 1968, Dominican Republic (1916-1924), Haiti (1918-1920, 1958-1964), Laos (1959-1962).
38. FM 90-6: Mountain Operations, 4-8 through 5-5.
39. bid., 4-5, 4-6, and appendix D.
40. Neville G. A. Maxwell, India's China War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970).
41. Wayne O. Evans and James E. Hansen, "Troop Performance at High Altitudes," Army (February 1966): 55-58; James R. Pulver, "Fight Against Mountain Sickness," Army Digest (June 1970): 45-46; FM 90-6: Mountain Operations, 1-9, 5-6 through 5-9.
42. DA Pamphlet 95-8: Mountain Flying Sense (Washington, DC: Dept. of the Army, 1962); Will F. Thompson, "Airmobile Warfare in the Mountains," Military Review 50, no. 7 (July 1970): 57-62; FM 90-6: Mountain Warfare, 1-15.
43. William H. Tunner, Over the Hump (Washington, DC: Office of the Air Force Historian, 1985); Otha Cleo Spencer, Flying the Hump: Memories of an Air War (College Station, TX: Texas A&M Press, 1992); and Don Moser, China-Burma-India, "Vaulting the Himalayas" (Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1978), 78-91.
44. FM 90-6: Mountain Operations, appendix F.
45. See, for example, John Warry, Warfare in the Classical World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980), which covers 2,400 years from 1,600 B.C. to 800 A.D.
46. Keith E. Bonn, When the Odds Were Even: The Vosges Mountains Campaign, October 1944-January 1945 (St. Rafael, CA: Presidio Press, 1994).
47. Wallace, The Italian Campaign, 100-117, 130-145, 151-164.
48. Matthew B. Ridgway, The Korean War (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 185-225; and T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War (New York: Macmillan, 1963), 478-645.
49. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, eds. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 417-432, 537-539. The quotation is on 427.
50. For overviews of wars in the Cradle of Western Civilization, see Yigal Yadin, The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands (Norwich, England: Jarrold and Sons, International Publishing, 1963); a broader view of combat in arid regions is contained in Bryan Perrett, Desert Warfare: From Its Roman Origins to the Gulf Conflict (New York: Sterling Publishing, 1988.
51. A. Starker Leopold, The Desert, Life Nature Library (New York: Time-Life Books, 1961); FM 90-3/Fleet Marine Force Manual 7-27: Desert Operations (Washington, DC: Dept. of the Army, August 19, 1977), 2-3 through 2-5 and appendix A.
52. Richard Collier, The War in the Desert (New York: Time-Life Books,1977), 171-172; Leopold, The Desert, 101-102, 105, 108-109; FM 90-3: Desert Operations, 2-7.
53. Winning in the Desert, Newsletter No. 90-7, Special Edition (Fort Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Combined Arms Training Activity, Center for Lessons Learned, August 1990), 12, 21; Kendall L. Peterson, "Automotive Testing in the Desert," Military Review 50, no. 11 (November 1970): 56-61; William G. ("Gus") Pagonis, Moving Mountains: Lessons in Leadership and Logistics from the Persian Gulf War (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1992), 86, 96; Leopold, The Desert, 13-14; FM 90-3: Desert Operations, 2-21 and 2-22.
54. Collier, The War in the Desert, 50, 52-53; Glenn R. Locke, "Dust," U.S. Army Aviation Digest (August 1970): 34-35.
55. FM 90-3: Desert Operations, 2-20, 2-22 and 2-23; Pagonis, Moving Mountains, 86; Infantry, July-August 1981, 168-169.
56. Pagonis, Moving Mountains, 108.
57. FM 90-3: Desert Operations, 2-9 and 2-10, 4-20; Leopold, The Desert, 31, 102, 146-150.
58. Richard Collier, The War in the Desert, 54.
59. FM 90-3: Desert Operations, 2-15 through 2-18, 5-9, 5-10, F-6, appendix G; Pagonis, Moving Mountains, 96, 205; Leopold, The Desert, 32, 128.
60. Martin Blumenson, Kasserine Pass (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1967); Moorehead's analogy is quoted in Collier, The War in the Desert, 21.
61. Fluid maneuvering throughout history is typified in Sir John Bagot Glubb, The Great Arab Conquests (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Leo de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989),78-148; T. E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom (New York: Dell Publishing, 1962); Edgar O'Ballance, Afghan Wars 1839-1992 (New York: Brassey's, 1993); Robert H. Scales, Jr., Certain Victory: The U.S. Army in the Gulf War (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, 1993).
62. Collier, The War in the Desert, 12-29.
63. Gulf War Air Power Survey, vol. I-5, Eliot A. Cohen, Director (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1993); Frank N. Schubert and Theresa Kraus, eds., The Whirlwind War (Washington, DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1995).
64. Leopold, The Desert, 18-19, 32, 34; Winning in the Desert, 16-17.
65. William Matthews, "Forecaster Helps Pilots Find Targets," Air Force Times, July 1, 1996, 16; FM 90-3: Desert Operations, 2-8, 4-4 and 4-5; Winning in the Desert, 18, 23; "The Desert: Its Effect on Soldiers," part 2, Infantry (September-October 1981): 31.
67. Virginia Cowles, The Phantom Major (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958).
68. Byron Farwell, Queen Victoria's Little Wars (New York: Harper and Row, 1972); Charles Miller, Khyber, British India's Northwest Frontier: The Story of an Imperial Migraine (New York: Macmillan, 1977); David C. Isby, War in a Distant Country: Afghanistan Invasion and Resistance (London: Arms and Armor, 1989).
69. FM 90-3: Desert Operations, appendix D.
71. Pagonis, Moving Mountains; Winning in the Desert, 12-13, 16-20; FM 90-3: Desert Operations, 2-20 through 2-25, 5-1, 5-6 through 5-11.
72. Masanobu Tsuji, Singapore: The Japanese Version (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1960), appendix 1; U.S. Marine Corps, Small Wars Manual (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1940); FM 31-20: Basic Field Manual, Jungle Warfare (Washington: U.S. War Department, December 1941).
73. Eric Bergerud, Touched With Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific (New York: Viking, 1996), 62-68; Joseph W. Stilwell, The Stilwell Papers (New York: Schocken Books, 1972), 293.
74. FM 90-5: Jungle Operations (Washington, DC: Dept. of the Army, August 16, 1982), 1-3 through 1-6.
75. John. L. Zimmerman, The Guadalcanal Campaign (Washington, DC: Historical Division, Hqtrs., U.S. Maine Corps, 1949), 15-17; Bergerud, Touched With Fire, 69-83.
76. FM 90-5: Jungle Operations, 5-2 through 5-4, 5-10, 5-15: Winning in the Jungle (Fort Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Combined Arms Center, Center for Army Lessons Learned, May 1995), I-1, I-5, I-8, II-2, III-2 through III-4, III-8.
77. Rafael Steinberg, Island Fighting (New York: Time-Life Books, 1978), 20, 38-45 (Admiral Halsey is cited on 38); FM 90-5: Jungle Warfare, 5-6, 5-14, appendix B (Navigation and Tracking); Winning in the Jungle, I-2; Zimmerman, The Guadalcanal Campaign, 16.
78. Steinberg, Island Fighting, 46-71, 82, 134-136; Bergerud, Touched With Fire, 80-84; Winning in the Jungle, I-2 through I-5, I-9; FM 90-5: Jungle Operations, appendix G.
79. Ian Henderson, Man Hunt in Kenya, with Philip Goodhart, portrays counterinsurgency problems in jungle-like terrain (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1958). See also Challenge and Response in International Conflict, vol. 1, Philippines (1899-1902, 1942-1945, 1946-1954), Burma (1942-1945), Malaya (1942-1945, 1948-1960), Indochina and South Vietnam (1946-1954, 1956-1963), Indonesia (1946-1949, 1958-1961); vol. 3, Nicaragua (1927-1933), Madagascar (1947-1948), Portuguese Guinea (1959-1965); Supplement, Dominican Republic (1916-1924), Haiti (1918-1920, 1958-1964), Laos (1959-1962).
80. FM 90-5: Jungle Operations, 6-5 through 6-17 and appendix I, Adjustment of Fire by Sound; Winning in the Jungle, I-14 through I-17.
81. Field-Marshal Viscount Slim, Defeat Into Victory, 119-200, 275.
82. Bernard Fall, Hell in a Very Small Place (Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, 1958).
83. FM 90-5: Jungle Operations, chapter 7, Combat Service Support; Don Moser, China-Burma-India (New York: Time-Life Books, 1978), 196-203; Steinberg, Island Fighting, 64-67.
84. FM 90-5: Jungle Operations, 2-2 through 2-8; Bergerud, Touched With Fire, 90-101, 452-467.
85. Bergerud, Touched With Fire, 72, 84, 85,86, 418, 420, 467-468.
86. W. Gilmore Simms, The Life of Francis Marion (New York: H. G. Langley, 1844).
87. Former German generals and staff officers prepared four pamphlets for publication by Dept. of the Army in Washington, DC: DA Pamphlet 20-201, Military Improvisations During the Russian Campaign, August 1951, 53-55; DA Pamphlet 20-231, Combat in Russian Forests and Swamps, July 1951, 1-3, 5, 7-8, 13, 32-33; DA Pamplet 20-290, Terrain Factors in the Russian Campaign, July 1951, 30, 38; DA Pamphlet 20-291, Effects of Climate on Combat in European Russia, February 1952, 29, 49, 50.
88. Combat in Russian Forests and Swamps (all); Terrain Factors in the Russian Campaign, 28-45; Effects of Climate on Combat in European Russia, 29-35, 49-55.
89. David and Jeanne Heidler, Old Hickory's War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1996); John K. Mahon, History of the Second Seminole War,1835-1842 (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 1967); Soldiers of Florida in the Indian, Civil, and Spanish American Wars (Tallahassee, FL: Board of State Institutions, undated).
90. Kenneth Katzman, Iraq: Marsh Arabs and U.S. Policy, Report No. 94-320F (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, April 13,1994); "Once a Wetland, Now a Desert," Boston Globe, September 8, 1994, 20.
91. William B. Fulton, Riverine Operations, 1966-1969 (Washington, DC: Dept. of the Army, 1985,17-19.
92. Ibid., 47-49, 57-58, 68-71; Engineering Concepts for Construction in the Mekong Delta Region of the Republic of Vietnam, U.S. Army Engineer Command, Vietnam (Provisional), undated (1967). James H. Nash, Special Projects, Engineering Division, U.S. Army Vietnam Engineer Section, orally furnished Dong Tam cost figures in 1968.
93. Richard M. Meyer, "The Ground-Sea Team in River Warfare," Military Review 46, no. 9 (September 1966): 54-61.
94. Fulton, Riverine Operations, 21, 26-67, 89-102; FM 90-5: Jungle Operations, appendix D; John B. Spore, "Floating Assault Force: Scourge of the Mekong Delta," Army (February 1958): 28-32; "Paths Across the Mekong" and "Monsters That Float on Air," Army (June 1968): 72-73, 80-81; John W. Baker and Lee C. Dickson, "Army Forces in Riverine Operations," Military Review 47, no. 8 (August 1967): 64-74.
95. Jay Luvaas, "Buna, 19 November 1942-2 January 1943," in America's First Battles, eds. Charles E. Heller and William A Stofft (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1986), 201, 209-210; Bergerud, Touched With Fire, 73-74.
96. S. L. A. Marshall, Ambush (New York: Cowles,1969), 186-199; Area Wide Analysis of the Rung Sat Special Zone, U.S. Army Vietnam, undated (1967), twenty-one 21x 26-inch sheets of text, maps, and photographs; recollections of Edwin W. Chamberlain, Jr., a Rung Sat veteran, July 10, 1969.
97. . . . From the Sea: Preparing the Naval Service for the 21st Century (Washington, DC: Department of the Navy, September 1992), 6.
98. Charles H. Sinex and Robert S. Winokur, "Environmental Factors Affecting Military Operations in the Littoral Battlespace," Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest 14, no. 2 (1993): 112-124; Charles W. Koburger, Jr. Narrow Seas, Small Navies, and Fat Merchantmen (New York: Praeger, 1990), 137-145.
99. For some cost-benefit figures, see George R. Worthington, "Combat Craft Have a Role in Littoral Warfare," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 120, no. 8 (August 1994): 24-25.
100. John W. McGillvray, Jr. "Stealth Technology in Surface Warships," Naval War College Review 47, no. 1 (Winter 1994): 29-30; Yedidia "Didi" Ya'ari, "The Littoral Arena: A Word of Caution," Naval War College Review 48, no. 2 (Spring 1995): 9, 10, 12, 17; Ronald O'Rourke, Navy DD-51 Destroyer Procurement Rate: Issues and Options for Congress, Report No. 94-343F (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, April 25, 1994), 25-26.
101. McGillvray, "Stealth Technology in Surface Warships," 33-39; Ya'ari, "The Littoral Region," 14.
102. Norman Friedman, "Littoral Anti-Submarine Warfare: Not As Easy As It Sounds," International Defense Review (June 1995): 53-57; Worthington, "Combatant Craft Have a Role in Littoral Warfare."
103. Koburger, Jr., Narrow Seas, Small Navies, and Fat Merchantmen, 43-44, 46-48, 69, 89-90, 107, 112-113; Maurice Griffiths, The Hidden Menace (Greenwich, CT: Conway Maritime Press, 1981), 127.
104. Arthur P. Brill, Jr., "The Last Twenty Feet," Sea Power (November 1995): 43-46; Sinox and Winokur, "Environmental Factors Affecting Military Operations in the Littoral Battlespace," 114, 115-117, 121.