^Notes

^{1.  "Current and Projected National Security Threats to the United States," hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence, S. HRG 105-587, 156.}

^{2.  The recent twin bombings of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania; the 1997 attack on foreign tourists in Luxor, Egypt; the 1996 bombing of Khobar Towers; the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah building; the 1995 sarin gas attack of the Tokyo subway; the thwarted 1993 attacks against tunnels, bridges, the U.N. Building, and other highly populated targets by the Islamic extremist group led by Shaykh Abdel Rahman; and the 1993 attack on the World Trade Center are all recent examples of terrorist acts intended to cause mass casualties.}

^{3.  The same can be said for Russia, which still has a large conventional military and of course is a nuclear super power. The fact that Russia will rely more on their strategic nuclear forces may further raise the likelihood of states and domestic groups looking to terrorism to offset Russia's military strength.}

^{4.  The Aum Shinrikyo first carried out a nerve gas attack in Matsumo, killing four and injuring over 100 in June 1994, unbeknownst to Western diplomatic and intelligence services at the time.}

^{5.  To include nuclear, radiological, chemical, and biological weapons.}

^{6.  As a whole, over the past year the consensus within the national security community is "when," rather than "if," a WMD terrorist attack is likely.}

^{7.  Nuclear production capabilities, as opposed to the exfiltration of a nuclear weapon or weapons usable material, is a very difficult challenge. Such a capability would be costly and would require a large infrastructure that would likely provide indications and warning of such activities.}

^{8.  Recent examples include the 1995 conviction of four members of the Minnesota Patriots Council of possessing ricin, an exceedingly toxic substance extracted from castor beans; and the 1995 arrest of a northern Arkansas chicken farmer also charged with the intent to use ricin as a biological weapon. The "Minnesota Patriots Council" planned to assassinate law enforcement officials by smearing the ricin on their doorknobs and car steering wheels. As far back as 1985, federal agents seized 33 gallons of cyanide from the compound of the Covenant, Sword and Arm of the Lord in Arkansas.}

^{9.  Antiterrorism includes all defensive measures employed to protect and reduce the vulnerability of personnel, populations, and facilities against a terrorist incident. Counterterrorism entails our offensive capability in support of U.S. policies aimed at preventing, deterring, compelling, defeating, and responding to terrorism.}

^{10.  Arguably, adopting a bunker mentality is counterproductive to U.S. diplomacy. If a U.S. diplomatic or consular presence is not necessary, perhaps we should not "be there in the first place."}

^{11.  Such measures would include establishing effective perimeter security, shatterproof glass, and other architectural security measures and countermeasures.}

^{12.  This would include financial infrastructures, logistics such as weapons procurement networks and communications networks, the military and operational planners and cell leaders of an organization, etc., all of which can be exploited in order to disrupt the terrorist organization or its plans.}

^{13.  Those engaged in the actual military and operational planning of a terrorist act are highly compartmentalized. Terrorism tends to germinate within small cells and is difficult to discern against the backdrop of the larger organization or movement.}

^{14.  Although the intentions and motives of terrorism are multifaceted and differ from group to group and incident to incident, the common denominator is that it is also a psychological weapon intended to erode trust and undermine confidence in a government, its political leaders, institutions and values. Furthermore, one reason why groups do not claim responsibility for their terrorist acts is because it is also a tactic aimed to spread further panic and fear, to keep us on edge, not knowing where, when, and if another attack is imminent.}

^{15.  See Frank J. Cilluffo and Gerard Burke, Russian Organized Crime (Washington: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997).}

^{16.  As of early spring, 1998 the FBI had approximately 250 pending investigations against Russian organized crime groups in the United States.}

^{17.  As U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan stated in his remarks at a U.N. General Assembly session earlier this June, to put this into perspective, the narcotics industry is greater than the global oil and gas industry and twice as large as the automobile industry.}

^{18.  Clearly, terrorist organizations also engage in narcotics production and trafficking, or provide support to narcotics enterprises, to raise funds to pursue their operations. Some terrorist organizations have become drug cartels outright, abandoning terrorism.}

^{19.  Such as the Chinese and Thai criminal enterprises smuggling heroin produced in the "Golden Triangle" into the United States.}

^{20.  The "narcotics industry" today has become more diffuse and fragmented. In part due to counternarcotics successes, i.e., against the Medellin and Cali drug cartels, the Mexican cartels and other smaller, yet exceedingly violent groups, are filling that vacuum.}

^{21.  The fact that the United States is the only real market for drugs, however, is absolutely incorrect. During his comments at a breakfast hosted by the American Bar Association this May, Office of National Drug Control Policy Director General Barry McCaffrey stated that there are currently more drug users in Caracas than Miami and in Rio than in New York City. Many production and transit countries have witnessed a marked increase in indigenous drug use and addiction in recent years.}

^{22.  The U.S. Department of Defense alone is currently spending $900 million a year on counternarcotics support.}

^{23.  See Frank J. Cilluffo and Bruce D. Berkowitz, Cybercrime, Cyberterrorism, Cyberwarfare: Averting an Electronic Waterloo (Washington: The Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1998.}

^{24.  More recent vulnerability assessments indicate that security has improved, but further efforts are needed.}