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Imagine your remote control informing television stations the instant you switched to them, and television companies selling this information to advertisers to help decide what junk mail to send you. Would you continue to use your remote control? Every time you use the Internet using your mouse and browser information can be collected and sold to advertising agencies.

Imagine a party where conversations revolved around personal information your friends had obtained on you from online private investigation agencies such as 1800USSearch.com, Docusearch.com, PIMall.com, and Datahawk.com: bank balances, financial investments, driver history, and criminal and bankruptcy records. Would you be concerned about your privacy?

Today, it's common practice by World Wide Web sites to collect information about the reading, shopping, and entertainment habits of millions of Internet users. Don't rely on the federal government for regulations to protect your privacy; no central privacy policy exists. Combating invasion of privacy requires a few key online steps and potentially the assistance of privacy advocacy groups.

Thousands of web sites collect information (e.g., Privacy.net) from millions of unknowing computer users. As users register to gain access to sweepstakes, special articles, chat sites, and a host of other features, web sites are collecting this information and storing it electronically for uses generally not disclosed to computer users. Today, hundreds of thousands of computers around the country store millions of "cookies", code used by web sites to identify users whenever they visit. Few web sites post privacy notices informing users of what kind of information it collects and how that information will be used. Frequently, the information is used in targeting markets for advertisers. Unfortunately, many web user are simply unaware-of how to prevent storage of cookies on their computers, and of the process to "opt-out", a procedure of having personal information removed from databases and lists which are often sold for marketing reasons.

More frightening is the more pressing privacy threats on the Internet-buying and selling of credit information and Social security numbers, the lack of security for credit-card account numbers, and the availability of unlisted phone numbers and maps to private residences. And little legislation exists to protect the user.

Government could play a role by establishing some basic rights consumers should have online. For instance, users should be notified when personal information is being gathered. They should be able to check it for accuracy, and opt out of any data collection if they choose. But little has been done.

In July 1998, Vice President Al Gore called for initiatives designed to give Americans greater control over personal information. At that time, little progress had been made toward increased government regulation. "This will be a call for everyone to do their part to protect individual privacy," said Gore. He recommended reliance on private sector leadership when possible, legislation when necessary, responsible government handling of information, and an informed public.

In August 1998, the Federal Trade Commission forced the popular Internet site, GeoCities, to stop releasing computer users' names, addresses, occupations, incomes, and other personal details to advertisers without notification. It was the first time a federal agency sought to enforce laws against deception or the misuse of personally identifiable information from a computer network. Consumer privacy groups hailed the move as a milestone in consumer protection. But more than one-year later, consumer rights groups continue to battle government agencies for increased privacy protection.

Organizations such as Online Privacy Alliance, a group of approximately 50 companies, including Microsoft, America Online, and IBM, support self-regulation over government-enacted regulation. Alliance companies believe the industry standards which they have established, such as notifying consumers if data are being gathered about them, will pressure many other Web businesses to sign on and honor the standards. Those who don't could be subject to advertising boycotts by the major companies backing the alliance.

In July 1999, the Federal Trade Commission urged Congress not to regulate web sites' privacy practices, siting progress in self-regulation as one of the key reasons for delaying legislation. Critics such as lawyers from the Federal Communications Commission stated that the "Internet doesn't survive well in traditional regulatory environments. There's probably more reason than most to be inquisitive and skeptical about what's going on."⁴

Numerous privacy advocacy groups are battling on behalf of web users for privacy protection. Organizations such as the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) recently filed suit against the Federal Trade Commission for not "hupping to" when consumers cried fowl over privacy problems on the Web. EPIC stated, "few commercial sites have published data collection and use policies" and that the FTC had failed to ensure the adequacy or effectiveness of industry programs to protect privacy.⁵ Much of the controversy centers around the all to common practice of "online profiling", the practice of aggregating information about consumer preferences and interests gathered by tracking movements online through the use of cookies. The offline equivalent is if someone followed you around the mall all day, keeping track of what stores you visited, what items you looked at and tried on, which items you purchases, and when you left.

The online advertising companies DoubleClick and Engage use cookies to build a unique profile on users, updating the profile every time the user visits a site that uses a DoubleClick ad. Engage estimates profiles have been created for more than 35 million Web surfers.

As the Federal Trade Commission attempted to learn more about online profiling at a recent workshop, a new phenomenon called "web bugs" surfaced. Web bugs, virtually invisible code that can identify a particular computer, record activity such as the page opened and the time the visit began and ended at a site, and report details to advertisers in order to tailor product promotions, have gained the attention of advertisers and privacy advocates alike. Why? Because few sites disclose they are deploying a Web bug. Online advertising companies such as DoubleClick and MatchLogic, which employ Web bugs, are insisting the tool is used only to identify the most popular material at the site. Privacy advocates disagree claiming that web bugs are just another back door, impossible to detect by the average consumer, and represent a growing, sophisticated threat to privacy.

The most effective means of combating invasion of privacy is self-vigilance. Web users need to become informed to ensure their privacy is protected. Here are a few helpful hints:

The World Wide Web has been compared by many to the Wild Wild West of the past-no written rules for conduct. And this new form of technology opens unprecedented opportunities to gather, share, or sell personal information about millions of people. Millions of records, stored in thousands of databases, are now interconnected and available for access. The ability of consumers to know what information has been collected is getting lost in the dust as e-commerce zooms ahead. And unless we become informed consumers, our privacy is at risk. To date, commercial industries' right to access information appears to be overtaking consumers' right to privacy. So what can you do? Combating invasion means you must become an informed Web user, taking appropriate steps to protect your privacy.

Educators and researchers have long been searching for ways to enhance student learning in various domains. Studies on cognitive development have influenced the development of a variety of different theories and models designed to improve the way students think and learn. Many different instructional practices and pedagogical tools have been implemented in classrooms to assist teachers in conveying important concepts and impart critical skills. Instructional technology has become a hot topic in this area and is gaining incredible interest among individuals in the education field. The use of computers in the classroom has launched numerous studies, and as a result, major issues and debates have arisen. Over time, the researchers in this area have fallen into three camps: the modelers, non-modelers, and the middle-campers (Derry & Lajoie, 1993).

The modelers focus very heavily on modeling students’ cognitive thought processes, and they represent the traditional intelligent tutoring system (ITS) paradigm (Derry & Lajoie, 1993). They believe that students’ thinking can be traced and modeled through the use of computers and that once students’ thought processes are modeled for a particular problem-solving domain, computers can then work to correct students’ problem-solving errors. Those that fall into the modeler camp build their computer programs primarily to enhance well-structured tasks (e.g., geometry, algebra, physics). ANGLE (A New Geometry Learning Environment) is one example of a modeler project (Koedinger & Anderson, 1993). ANGLE is designed to enhance skills related to geometry proof problem solving. The goal for these researchers when designing a program such as this one is to determine what methods students use to deal with the complexity of geometry proofs and solve the problems given to them. By doing this, they can trace and model students thought processes and then build them into a computer-based learning environment designed to tutor students and enhance their problem-solving skills.

Non-modelers, on the other hand, fall on the opposite end of the spectrum. These researchers believe that computers should be used strictly for assistance in instruction, not to model students as they accomplish tasks. While the modelers work to build computer-based learning environments that can tutor students and provide feedback with the teacher as only a guide, the non-modelers work to create computer tools that assist the teacher in enhancing students’ learning. In this sense, computer tools, such as spreadsheets, databases, microworlds, and visualization tools can help to enhance the learning environment by providing multiple representations of various concepts and encouraging students to think in critical ways (Jonassen, 2000). These researchers feel that the most important ability for students to master is to be responsible for their own thinking and learning and to be autonomous and reflective in their learning (Jonassen, in press; Reusser, 1993). Researchers in this camp have designed computer tools that work to provide student generated learning environments. One example of a computer tool is HyperAuthor (Lehrer, 1993). This program uses construction tools and reflection tools to facilitate the design of hypermedia documents in a particular domain. Other non-modeler computer-based instructional tools include HERON which facilitates students’ self-directed understanding of complex mathematical word problems (Reusser, 1993), and The Writing Partner, a pedagogical tool that was designed to assist students in improving their writing ability (Salomon, 1993).

The middle-campers provide a bridge between these two extreme camps. Researchers in this area believe that certain aspects of tasks in particular domains can be modeled and certain aspects cannot or should not be modeled. They believe that "computers can and should serve part of the cognitive mentorship function without giving over total control of the learning assessment process to system users (teachers and students)" (Derry & Lajoie, 1993, p. 7). Middle-campers combine the work of modelers and non-modelers to create computer-based learning environments that enhance critical thinking skills, aid teachers in conveying important concepts to students, and at the same time, model the thought processes of students. These computer-based learning environments model and trace thought processes, but at the same time, they work as pedagogical tools allowing students to direct their own learning and practice in situated, real-world scenarios that would not be feasible in classrooms.

Examples of this research include BioWorld (Lajoie, 1993) which situates learners in a context in which they can use their knowledge of bacterial and viral infections to diagnose patients, SICUN (Lajoie & Azevedo, in press) which is designed to assist surgical intensive care unit medical personnel in their assessments of critical care patients, RadTutor (Azevedo & Lajoie, 1998) designed to train radiology residents to recognize and diagnose mammograms showing breast disease, and Sherlock I (Lajoie, 1993) which allows individuals in avionics to troubleshoot. Each of these programs is beneficial because they situate learning and allow individuals to practice in areas that do not allow practice in the real world.

Each of these camps works toward a common goal: to enhance student learning. Further research should be conducted to determine the most effective use of computers in the classroom.

A computer simulation involves using a computer to mimic the behavior of a complex system or process in order to gain insight into its functioning under different circumstances. As such, its primary purpose is simply to describe the behavior of the system or process which it models. The fact that computer simulation only seeks to describe how a system does work -- not to improve it -- sets this class of models apart from so-called optimizing models which attempt to show how a system should work to operate at peak efficiency and effectiveness. Also, they are used to develop theories which account for the observed behavior and also to predict future behavior as modifications are made either to the system itself or to the way in which it is operated.

In the development of new systems, simulation models are often created directly from the conceptual design, in order to get an idea of how the final design would work long before "tin is bent"; it's much easier to make modifications in software than it is in hardware. Reengineering business processes has proven to be another important area for computer simulation. Here, the existing system is modeled with computer simulation and then modifications are made to the simulation with the idea of improving its performance. Only after these changes are refined and fully checked out in the model are changes made to the real system. Training is a major focus for simulation efforts. The cost of training on actual systems can be prohibitive. Further, it is possible to provide training in the operation of systems using computer simulation which would not be considered with the real systems for safety reasons. The use of simulation in formulating policy is an emerging application area. Complex systems with extensive dependencies among their component parts can be modeled in simulation and the effects of modifying policies or environments observed, a process often not possible with the real system. Finally, computer simulation can be used to model the ongoing operations of organizations to determine the effects of changes is staffing, the way in which resources are allocated, and the varying demands on the system or process.

The different types of computer simulations are described below:

Process Simulation. Process simulation is used to model that large class of business processes which are characterized by customers, in one form or another, entering a system which provides a well-defined value-added service through the application of its internal resources. Examples of such business processes include settling of claims at an insurance company, treating patients in an emergency room, repairing vehicles at a garage, taking phone orders at a mail-order facility, and processing jobs at a computer center. Each of these different applications shares certain similarities: entities arrive at the process in accordance with certain statistical distributions, there is a well-defined methodology for their routing to various stations once within the process, the amount of the organizational resources (time, staff, and materials) which are required for each incoming entity is known in advance (at least statistically), and the capacity of each part of the process is known. The ubiquity of business processes having these essential characteristics has resulted in the development of a class of simulation development environments -- called simply "simulators" -- which allow the rapid creation of animated simulations of these processes at a high degree of realism. They permit the user to model reasonably complex processes using pointing, clicking, dragging and filling in tables along with a minor amount of scripting, rather than writing simulation programs from scratch, as had been the practice until their emergence in the early 1990s. This type of model of a business processes can be used in a variety of ways: uncovering the sources of bottlenecks in servicing customers, helping to determine staffing levels to provide given levels of service, suggesting better ways of allocating organizational resources, scheduling workers' shifts to achieve required service levels while minimizing personnel costs, estimating the maximum possible customer throughput, and assessing the impact on system productivity of a better trained workforce and upgrades in equipment.

System Dynamics Simulation. These simulations are used to model complex systems which are made up of simpler subsystems, having internal interdependencies and influences on one another. Often these influences can be quite non-linear in nature (changes in stimuli not yielding proportionate changes in response) and will usually exhibit time delays. These simulations show the effects over time of both their initial conditions as well as the continuing interactions among the interdependent subsystems. The way in which the outputs vary over time are often highly non-intuitive and consequently very instructive -- instability is sometimes present where one has every reason to expect stability. Typically, system dynamics simulations are used to model systems at a higher, more strategic level than process simulations which most often find their chief usefulness at the operational level in organizations. Rather than looking for bottlenecks in processes and more effective utilization of resources, system dynamics simulations focus on the long term system effects of policy choices. As an example, the national economy of the United States has been modeled using system dynamics techniques, to demonstrate the effects of changes in fiscal and monetary policy and the investment of resources in different industry groups. At a slightly lower level, the national health care system has been modeled to compare the effects over time of various proposals for national health insurance and different ways of regulating the health insurance industry. And the internal operations of all types of organizations have been modeled using system dynamics to display the results of various approaches to staffing and resource allocation. A particularly interesting application of system dynamics simulation is as the software engine for so-called "management flight simulators". This is in interactive type of simulation which focuses on training managers to make better tactical decisions and to establish strategic policies which are likely to achieve organizational objectives.

Visual Interactive Simulation. Visual interactive simulations are also used for training in a variety of different areas, and are characterized by their use of highly realistic video clips to provide feedback in response to decisions made by the user. These simulations can probably best be thought of as computer-assisted case studies in which the participant is given information about the case (either on paper, in text on the computer screen, or in a video sequence) and then asked to make a decision by choosing from among a variety of preselected responses. The specific response which is made determines both the next video clip which is seen as well as the logical path which is followed in the remainder of the simulation. (To prevent the number of possible paths from growing geometrically as the simulation progresses, from time to time the case is returned in some plausible way to a common baseline.) The video responses are often highly charged emotionally -- lavish praise or perhaps a scolding from an authority figure -- to increase the impact of the experience. Because of the high data storage requirement of video sequences, a video disk player is generally employed along with a high resolution color monitor separate from the computer monitor which displays the textual responses and provides instructions for the control of the simulation. Particular applications of visual interactive simulation include the training of corporate public affairs managers in handling press releases of important news items, instruction in litigation for law school students, and experience in conducting labor negotiations for senior corporate managers. One particularly noteworthy application involves training military doctors in diagnosing and treating battlefield casualties under extremely high stress conditions.

Scientific Visualization. Strictly speaking, this is not simulation, but rather a method for graphically displaying the results of a simulation of a physical process at regular time steps. In the past, one of the biggest obstacles to effective use of scientific and engineering simulations has been the difficulty in interpreting the results. It is generally quite difficult to gain insights into what is happening in a simulated process by merely examining printouts of numerical results. But a time sequenced set of computer drawn images presented one after the other provides the illusion of a movie of the process evolving over time. Often this results in the same type of glimpse into the underlying behavior of a scientific process that the user of a process simulation gains from viewing a real-time animation. Scientific visualizations have been effectively used in studying the spread of forest fires, the development of thunderstorms, the growth of trees, and the penetration of armor by bullets.

Distributed Interactive Simulation. Distributed Interactive Simulations (DIS) involve networking a number of computer simulations running on different computers, often at different facilities, to model military combat operations interactively at a high degree of realism. Participants in the simulation "see" each other in the common synthetic environment (or, computer generated image of the battlespace), providing each with the experience of playing within the same game. Furthermore, these DISs may themselves be linked in real time to actual live operations as well as more traditional constructive computer games played out in command posts. This results in each participant optimizing his own training experience.

A synthetic environment is essentially a database consisting of three parts: (1) a digitized "map" of the region of play containing topographic information, colors and textures of the ground, and ancillary features; (2) a complete enumeration of all friendly and enemy forces (both real and computer generated) showing location, orientation, size, shape, color and status; and (3) information about the observer, to include geographic coordinates, altitude, orientation of view, and conditions of visibility. With this information, a graphics generator within each player's computer sends to the display device the image that would be seen by the observer of the battle space and all the friendly and enemy forces within it. All changes in location, orientation and status of each player are regularly transmitted to all other participants, thereby keeping the simulation continually updated. The DIS permits realistic combat training, the development of tactics and military doctrine through the analysis of past battles, the creation of new system concepts, and in mission rehearsal.

In summary, advances in computer processing power, memory and communications have made the use of computer simulation technically feasible. Diminishing budgets for planning, training and operations have made the use of computer simulation economically desirable. And the inability of analytical decision analyses to accommodate the interdependencies of highly complex systems has made the use of computer simulation operationally essential.

With the increasing use of technology in every aspect of our lives, there is a growing need to ensure that it is used to enhance rather than interfere with the natural way of getting things done. The resulting role of an information technology architect is gradually emerging. Although the task of developing and maintaining an information technology architecture is extremely challenging and complex, there exists no concentration of study in higher education that prepares one for entrance into the profession. A model is required that establishes the basic competency skill mix that will prepare one to perform effectively in the role of information technology architect. The results of such a model can be used as the basis for further research leading to the development of a new concentration of study in information technology architecture.

With the increasing size and complexity of information systems, it is necessary to use a construct that explains the relationship of components within an enterprise. There have been several initiatives to formulate such a framework; however most of these have occurred independently with no effort to establish consistency in the manner in which it is accomplished. This is not surprising given that it is an emerging discipline that is still in its very early stages. The immaturity of the discipline is evident in the fact that there are differences in terminology, standards, methodologies, and processes for representing information technology architecture that supports an enterprise. Contributing to the difficulty in providing better consistency in the discipline is the fact that there is not a formally educated workforce to perform this very challenging task. Those who are doing the work today come from varying backgrounds. From over thirty years of my own personal experience, I have observed persons performing the work of an information technology architect who have been educated in many fields, including business, engineering, psychology, computer science, education, and many others. Most people would not be comfortable having brain surgery performed by a professional veterinarian and yet business managers entrust the complex work of managing the information technology architecture of their enterprise to those who have been trained in either loosely related or completely unrelated disciplines.

Business control over the computing assets is exercised through an information technology architecture. Much like designing a building, the executives play the role of building owner and work with the architect to provide an agreed upon drawing for the information and processes of the enterprise. Dr. Steven Spewak, whose work on planning an enterprise architecture is well recognized, identifies the greatest obstacles that must be overcome in order to succeed in this endeavor. One such obstacle stated is inexperience and lack of training of personnel that are expected to perform the work. It is long overdue that academia take a proactive part in recognizing the need for this discipline and assist in formulating a model for a curriculum with a concentration in this much needed area of study.

Because this is an emerging discipline, there is considerable inconsistency in terminology. Therefore in order to add clarity to this research effort, following is a list of short definitions of the basic terms that I am using in this article.

Information Technology Architecture: The documentation of the relationships among business and management processes and information technology. It is broad in scope and includes products and processes. It will contain two elements: the Enterprise Architecture, and a Technical Reference Model and Standards Profile.

Enterprise Architecture: The explicit description of the current and desired relationships among business and management process and information technology. It consists of five components: Business Processes, Information Flows and Relationships, Applications, Data Descriptions, and Technology Infrastructure.

Technical Reference Model: The identification and description of the information services such as the database, communications and security services, used throughout the enterprise.

Standards Profile: Definition of a set of Information Technology standards that supports the services articulated in the technical reference model.

Business: The mission or goals of the organization. It is not limited to profitable organizations and can represent any industry, profit and non-profit organization, government or privately owned.

An information technology architecture is useful for communicating complex information in a meaningful manner from many different perspectives. It should be predictable, repeatable, and most importantly free of ambiguity for anyone who understands the rules that govern its construct. Currently there is wide variation in both the content and format of information technology architectures resulting in confusion, misunderstandings, cost overruns, schedule slips, and generally chaotic and incompetent management of technology that often falls short of satisfying the requirements of the business community. A major contributing factor to the inconsistencies in the architecture is the lack of education to familiarize the functioning architects with the basics of their profession. In order to fill this void, a model must be developed that establishes the basic set of competencies required for entry level into the profession. This model could then be used to formulate a concentration of study or formalize a curriculum that would ensure that the student who completes the program is equipped with the basic educational requirements to practice in this field of work.

The basic question posed is: "What constitutes the set of basic competencies required for one to practice effectively as an information technology architect?" The answer to this question would be fairly straightforward if the discipline of information technology architecture was mature and stable. Such is not the case. Due to the immaturity of the discipline, the work itself is still poorly defined. However there are comparable industries performing similar work from which some analogies may be drawn for the purpose of testing a proposed set of competencies. In developing his information technology framework, John Zachman compared the representations for the architecture to those required for any complex product such as an airplane or a building. Using this same analogy it is reasonable to deduct a starting set of competencies based on well-established curriculum for the profession of building architects.

Having identified a set of competencies, the question then becomes; "Is a particular competency "X" a significant contributor to the overall competency level "Y" of an information technology architect?" A second questions is; "What is the relative importance of a particular competency "X" as a significant contributor to the overall competency level "Y"of an information technology architect?"

After examining the content of several undergraduate and graduate architecture programs offered in leading universities in North America, the following common core subject areas were identified: city planning, graphic design, modeling, communications, and architectural history. Comparable areas of study for a program in information technology architecture would be: business planning, graphic design, modeling, communications, and information technology history. The questions then become:

The Privacy Invasion	A dramatic look at how the Internet can secretly gather information about you!
Bluetooth - An IT Breakthrough!	Learn more about this exciting convergence of communications and computer technology.
Computers as Cognitive Tools	Lisa Cusick looks at the use of computers in the classroom.
A Manager's Guide to Computer Simulation	IT Department Chair Bill Hodson looks at this key technology.
The Need for An IT Architecture Curriculum	Carolyn Strano identifies a major void in IT education.